How did prominent british newspapers expose and fight for their political stances regarding the Brexit's referendum?

INTRODUCTION

British newspapers have used different persuasive strategies to promote their political stances regarding Brexit. It is now well documented that the United Kingdom has been experiencing political and social instabilities since 2016 due to Brexit, ''a term which comes from the conjunction of the words "British" and "Exit" and refers to the withdrawal of the United Kingdom from the European Union'' (EgyptToday. 2018). In a nutshell, the prominent British newspapers wield power over their readership, influencing their beliefs about politics by applying different strategies to persuade their audiences. Thus, one can approach an analysis of the news from two angles to understand the Brexit process further. Therefore, the questions that drive this study are: "How did leading British newspapers position themselves politically regarding the Brexit process?" and "Which persuasive strategies did the papers employ to influence Brexit's referendum result?" In order to answer this question, the study looks at the Brexit coverage from three newspaper titles from England: The Guardian, The Sun and Daily Mail. From such empirical data, this study aims to describe the political stance adopted by the papers and to analyze the persuasive strategies used by them for the sake of defending their views and persuading their readers on the Brexit question. In the interest of answering the questions above, the methodology chosen is to evaluate language using the Aristotelian Triad (or The Rhetorical Appeal Triangle). This method allows the researcher to systemize a way to investigate the appeal used and the message conveyed in order to persuade an audience, by using one (or more) of the following categories: Ethos (an appeal to the readers sense of credibility, character and ethics), Pathos (an appeal to the reader's emotions), and Logos (and appeal to the reader's sense of logic and reasoning). The empirical material of this study is six articles published by the three newspapers specified above. The choice of the articles was based on their publication dates, within a range of one day before and one day after the referendum that decided Brexit. The analytical process is to isolate the arguments made in the empirical material by looking at how the articles presented the features of each category of discourse strategy (Ethos, Pathos and Logos). The hypothesis of this work is that the stance taken by each of the newspapers chosen typifies their historical role in democratic political system and their traditional affiliation political parties.

BACKGROUND

A referendum (a popular vote held to decide a single issue of key political importance) was held on Thursday 23 June 2016 to determine whether the UK should leave or remain in the European Union. The referendum electorate turnout was at 72%, and of the voters 52% (more than 30 million people) voted to leave the EU. In practice, the referendum triggered a discussion that exacerbated social divisions within the United Kingdom. The 'heat' of argument and level of disagreement was, in part, fueled by the British newspapers, which played a central role in putting forward the political manifestoes on Brexit. Therefore, analyzing the behaviour of the UK's leading newspapers and the strategies they employed to defend their views is an exciting way to understand how Brexit sparked such polarised positions in British society.

Since the early eighteenth century, English newspapers have encouraged the general population to become interested in politics and even to participate in it. In doing so, historically they have played an essential role in expanding the public's involvement in politics beyond the political and social elite. Remarkably, the British press is not impartial when it comes to communicating news and information. On the contrary, newspapers, especially, use all their influential power to defend the ideology that their readership favors most. This means British newspapers often assume a clear political bias when a crucial issue is at stake, and through their articles reveal a position (left-wing, center or right-wing) regarding that issue. Predictably, British newspapers repeated their historical political engagement throughout the Brexit process yet pursued different rhetorical strategies to appeal to their audiences.

English newspapers are divided into two main groups: the Broadsheets and the Tabloids. "Broadsheet newspapers are broadly defined as those who write in-depth articles for an audience interested in serious news writing rather than celebrity gossip or sensationalism" (Oxford Royale Academy. 2018). Tabloids are cheaper to purchase and quicker to read, with the balance of news [...] and "other content (gossip, weather, sport, and games such as crosswords and sudoku) tipped much more towards the latter in comparison to broadsheets" (Oxford Royale Academy. 2018). However, all newspapers share the same goal: to inform, persuade and influence their target audience. Based on the preferences of their readers, they will use different techniques in order to achieve their goals. For example, the lower-income demographic are likely to find the enjoyable to read short paragraphs of the tabloid press which overtly supports the ideology they defend, more appealing than the longer, more informatively complex and less overtly biased articles found in the Broadsheets which tend to appeal to the middle to high-income demographic whose level of education demands more balanced and detailed argumentation.

BACKGROUND OF THE NEWSPAPERS

Newspapers and politics often have intertwined trajectories in the United Kingdom as British media houses developed as a natural offshoot from the various parties to make their political stances clear to their target electorate (Barker. 125). Despite the fact that British newspapers are not an exception globally, when political disputes come to the fore, it is usual that newspapers worldwide assume an unbiased position. This, however, is not the case of the three newspapers analyzed in this study. The Sun, The Guardian, and The Daily Mail have in their histories several episodes in which they have played significant roles in crucial political processes for the United Kingdom.

The first newspaper chosen for this analysis is The Guardian. "The Manchester Guardian" was founded after the Peterloo massacre of 1819 to provide a voice for those in favor of greater protection of the masses (The Guardian. 2017). In recent years the Guardian has significantly increased its digital operations. Between 2009-2010 it launched a range of new digital products and services, including apps (The Guardian. 2017). The Guardian's editorial stance is considered more left-wing than that of The Daily Telegraph and The Times, its main London competitors, its reporting is marked by its independence. However, on the 26th of June of 2016, the article "The Guardian view on the EU referendum: keep connected and inclusive, not angry and isolated." announced its support for remaining in the European Union (The Guardian. 2017).

The second newspaper chosen for this analysis is The Daily Mail. The Daily Mail was founded in 1896 by Alfred Harmsworth, and in 1902 its circulation exceeded one million, rivalling the popularity of the New York World and the New York Journal. The newspaper is known for having actively backed fascist movements during the interbellum period of the 1920s and 1930s (Encyclopedia Britannica. 2019). "The Daily Mail has said Brexit wouldn't damage the UK and as the voice of 'small c' conservative Britain, will follow their instincts and call for" (Encyclopedia Britannica. 2019) [...] 'out', citing EU rules and immigration as impeding British interests. The Daily Mail is currently the United Kingdom's second biggest-selling daily newspaper, with an average readership of 3.951 million and is accessed widely online.

The Sun was founded in 1964, initially a broadsheet, it replaced the newspaper the Daily Herald, which had been printed in Manchester since 1930. The Sun became a tabloid in 1969 after Rupert Murdoch's News International purchased it. The circulation of the paper had its peak in 1995. The Sun is now the most-read newspaper in the UK, maintaining popularity among the British population with its sensationalism and shocking stories. The paper has shifted political allegiance over the years between Labour and Conservative, and the newspaper is, today, a Conservative supporter. The Sun in the early Murdoch years was pro-Labour, although it had supported Margaret Thatcher in the general election of 1979 (Reid. 2020).

The persuasive strategies applied by the leading press in England

The Guardian is a liberal newspaper, known for its lively reporting and campaigning support for causes such as education, medical reforms, ageing problems, global warming, etc. To convince their target public, The Guardian is recognized for its use of evidence (the use of facts, figures, quotes and graphs to support an argument), expert opinion (to lend weight to their case) and logic (A logical, well-reasoned argument).

The Daily Mail is a newspaper that mixes sensationalism with serious news. Its content style is designed for a much wider audience than papers dedicating themselves to serious news. Because The Daily Mail is a tabloid newspaper, it contains more photographs than broadsheet newspapers. Also, the Mail Online has articles hosting user comments and is constantly updating online conversations, which attract more users. The paper abuses the use of metaphor (describing one thing as another for effect), imagery (vivid description to create association), sarcasm (a mocking tone) and a humorous tone in their articles.

The Sun is reputed to be one of England's least reliable newspapers, it has gained an increase in its audience due to the transition from print to online media. The Sun is also a tabloid, and like The Daily Mail, it mixes serious news with sensationalism. In order to convince its readership, the paper uses hyperbole (the exaggeration and overstatement of fact), synthetic personalization (using the words 'we' or 'us' and 'our' to elicit a connection to the reader), imagery, and reported speech in their articles.

The Aristotelian triad applied to the study's empirical material

Persuasive strategies applied to convey an argument can be seen from different perspectives the perspective I have chosen is discourse analysis, to which the Aristotelian Triad is aligned. "Aristotle taught that a speaker's ability to persuade an audience is based on the capacity to appeal to an audience in three different areas: logos, ethos, and pathos" (Lutzke. 2009). Ethos means convincing through the character of the author and what is associated with the author, people tend to believe those whom they respect. This ethical appeal refers to the experience, knowledge and credibility of the writer. "Ethos is often conveyed through tone and style of the message and through the way the writer or speaker refers to differing views" (Lutzke. 2009. It can also be affected by the reputation of the writer as it exists independently from the message. "The impact of ethos is often called the argument's appeal from credibility" (Lutzke. 2009).

Pathos means persuading by appealing to the reader's emotions. An appeal to the audience's emotion causes the public not only to respond emotionally but to identify with the writer's point of view (Lutzke. 2009). Perhaps the conventional way of conveying pathos is through narrative or story, which can turn the abstractions of logic into something palpable and present. The values, beliefs, and understandings of the writers are implicit in the story and conveyed imaginatively to the reader. Pathos has both emotional and imaginational impact in a message.

Logos means persuading through the use of reasoning (Lutzke. 2009). It refers to the internal consistency of the message, the logic of its reasons, and the effectiveness of its supporting evidence. The impact of logos on an audience is sometimes called the argument's logical appeal.

The analysis of this article will be looking at any act where the writer tries to convince the audience. In the case of logos, the paper will be looking to facts, statistics, quotations from reputable sources as well as existing knowledge. For Pathos, the target of the analysis will be finding the emotional vehicle that carries logos to the audience. And lastly, ethos will be pointing to the adjectives used to describe someone who the article is using to promote their opinion on Brexit.

The articles were chosen according to the political position of the newspapers and also the published date. The articles that will be part of this analysis are the newspaper's last publication before the referendum and the first publication after the referendum. The rationale behind choosing these dates it is the last moment before the referendum for the newspapers to promote their ideas and influence the people who would be vote the following day and the first post-referendum opportunity to express their response to the decision the electorate made when voting in favor of leaving the United Kingdom.

The characteristics of newspapers are dependent on the printed format. The tabloids chosen for review (The Sun and The Daily Mail) contain more sensational, short and easily understood paragraphs. The chosen broadsheet (The Guardian), on the other hand, contains longer paragraphs, fewer assumptions and more substantial arguments. All articles chosen to be part of this work have been published in the online portals of each newspaper. The reason online versions were chosen above print versions is that the newspapers were published in 2016 and the physical versions of the newspapers cannot be obtained.

This study analyzed six articles published on the Internet by three leading British newspapers and looked at how they applied persuasive strategies to support their political views about the Brexit referendum. Drawing upon the Aristotelian triad approach, this study identified words, sentences, ideas, and other discursive tools employed in each article. In doing so, it reveals the persuasive strategy each of the newspapers chose to convince their readers of its ideological stance or confirm the stance held by their readership.

THE SUN

According to the analysis, the persuasion strategy adopted by The Sun newspaper was dominantly pathos. Name and date these articles (and assign numbers - and refer to the articles in the appendix) In the articles chosen, the newspaper promotes an unwavering message that the UK would be in a stronger economic and diplomatic position if independent from the European Union. For that, the newspaper used much of its ability to persuade people in the form of an emotional appeal.

Synthetic personalization is one of the ways The Sun uses to express its emotional appeal. Synthetic personalization is the process of addressing mass audiences as though speaking to individuals by using inclusive language, so it relates directly to pathos, by creating an 'us' and by implication a 'them', synthetic personalization makes it easy for writers to demonize and discredit the 'outsider' in order to sway the opinion of the reader. Synthetic personalization featured frequently in the article which referred to Brexit as "our chance to believe in ourselves". Another way the article influences the reader's decision on the referendum is through the use of allusion. "Allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of ​​historical, cultural, literary or political significance". In the article published a day before Brexit, the newspaper uses the term "Independence Day", comparing Brexit with a significant and defining historical event which is celebrated annually and a fundamental aspect of identity in US culture, in this way the article implies that leaving the EU would be as culturally defining as America claiming its independence from English Sovereign rule, this is an emotional appeal to the patriotic readers who feel that immigration has threatened British identity and the prosperity of the British has been compromised by foreign workers. Another subtle way of persuading readers is by implying a hierarchy amongst prominent political figures. On more than one occasion, Boris Johnson, an ardent supporter of leaving the EU, is introduced by his title "Mr",however, the Prime Minister at the time, David Cameron, who, despite initiating the referendum, was pro-remain, is referred to only as "David Cameron". This implies that the paper has placed Boris Johnson "one step above" Cameron in an unofficial hierarchy, and therefore, in line with The Sun's views on Brexit. The final way in which The Sun persuades its readers is through the use of metaphor. By publishing "finally, our nation will have the chance to stand on our own feet" and "Mr. Johnson is travelling by helicopter, taking the referendum battle to the skies ", the writer invites the reader to engage with these powerful images, the idea of standing on your own feet implies growing up, becoming independent, developing autonomy, this is a strong message for a nation who is taunted by the fear of being the 'puppet' or 'poodle' of stronger, world powers. Likewise, 'taking the [...] battle to the skies' appeals to the heroic image of events such as the Battle of Britain, which, like the allusion to 'Independence Day' is a fundamentally defining aspect of British identity. This strategy of using metaphors is widely used by British tabloids, who abuse it in order to capture the reader's patriotic imagination.

THE GUARDIAN

In general, The Guardian's articles rely upon logos as the method of persuading their readership, they are informative and provide logical and balanced arguments. The tone is formal, and the main objective is to convey a range of arguments from those involved in the Brexit process. The most significant difference between the two articles chosen for this study is that in the article from the day before the referendum, makes the paper's opinion on Brexit transparent. The article clearly has the intention of converting the reader that the decision to stay in the European Union is the best for the British population and it's place in Europe, claiming "Like democracy, the EU is an imperfect way of answering the modern world's unrelenting challenges. But the answer to its imperfections is to reform them, not to walk away". Logical argument is supported by the use of pathos. The article begins with the following sentence: "David Cameron crisscrossed the country on Wednesday in a final effort to warn Britain's voters against Brexit". Here, it is possible to see the use of pathos in two situations. The first in the use of the word 'crisscrossed', which gives the reader the impression that David Cameron has left no stone unturned in his dedication to his people. Secondly pathos is present in the use of the word 'warn' with its negative meaning, Cameron's task to prevent the nation from making a dire mistake is made clear, raising Cameron to the status of a savior of the nation.

Another way the newspaper found using Pathos to persuade the reader, was to mention the fact that Michael Gove, Secretary of State, compared the experts who have warned against Brexit to Nazis. After that, the newspaper uses the speech of David Cameron, where he says: "That is the extent to which they have lost it". First, the comparison made by Gove is a way of applying Pathos, as it compares a historical event with a current one to activate emotions in its listeners. However, The Guardian uses the politician's statement against him through Pathos, inducing that the comparison is absurd, and connecting with the speech of David Cameron, who with an emotional charge, implies that the pro-Brexit would have gone too far with that comparison.

The article published after the results Title of the referendum is entirely different. According to the methodology used for the analysis, the second article in The Guardian shows greater quantitative use of Pathos. However, the main arguments used by the newspaper are supported by the use of Logos. The title of the article suggests that the published piece is in a negative tone; after all, The Guardian was against Brexit. "UK votes to leave the EU after a dramatic night divides nation ", here both words' dramatic' and 'divides' bring a negative meaning to this title, which is considered Pathos since it is an use of emotionally loaded language, the paper also uses the reader's distaste for Nigel Farage as material for emotional response claiming "Nigel Farage, declared Friday the UK's "independence day", and said the referendum result was a "victory for real people, a victory for ordinary people, a victory for decent people"." This reported speech makes the reader feel anger towards the country's decision.

One of the ways in which the newspaper uses logos is by addressing the subject that David Cameron should resign as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. Using the reported speech of Hilary Benn," If there were to be a vote to leave, then as far as the prime minister is concerned we do not see how he is going to remain in his job for very long at all" the paper argues that Cameron should step down from his position as prime minister. The newspaper supports its argument with quotes from Ed Miliband, who shares the same opinion as Hillary Benn: "The prime minister has to show that he understands what people are saying on the leave side of the argument". The Guardian uses 'insider' knowledge to support its negative response to the referendum.

THE DAILY MAIL

The format of The Daily Mail articles that were chosen for this work has a different format than The Guardian and The Sun. The Daily Mail used its article from the day before Brexit Title for an emotional appeal in favour of Brexit, and in the article published the day after the vote they write a guide to what the next few days after the UK's "victory" will look like. With that, the analysis based on the methodology chosen for this work identified that in the first article analyzed, pathos dominates the argument, unlike the post-poll day article, which contains more logos. The title of the article from the day before the referendum already has an active use of emotional language. "If you believe in Britain, vote Leave. ", The use of the word 'believe' brings an emotional tone to the title, arguing that to be patriotic is to vote for Brexit. In the second sentence of the title of this article, the article claims that the European Union is "broken", justifying its leave position by demonizing the opposition, and using the reader's patriotism as emotional persuasion.

The article makes it clear that it intends to convince the reader to vote in favour of Brexit. However, the way the newspaper uses pathos to persuade the reader is to continue to demonize the European Union, citing negative points and insinuating that the UK will be 'free' once it leaves the EU. According to the newspaper: "The EU is an edifice built on lies - more than 40 years on, some 50 or 60 percent of our laws and 70 per cent of regulations are dictated to us by Brussels, whose power is only matched by its incompetence, corruption and hunger ". The way the newspaper uses pathos to convince the reader is extremely negative. The words ''lies'', ''dictated'', ''incompetence'', '' corruption '' and '' hunger '' have a crucial and negative meaning for the statement made by the newspaper. The use of these words provokes an emotional response, and the author's description of the UN has the power to evoke anger.

The guide Title published by The Daily Mail is based on the use of logos to persuade the reader. However, the newspaper also uses pathos to reassure the result of the previous day's referendum. Before starting the guide, the newspaper writes an introduction, which says:" The historic result could see us embarking on a path to an enlightened era or prosperous global trade ", in which case pathos is used as a form of vivid descriptions and figurative language. The article uses logos to explain the UK's post-referendum procedures. According to the methodology used to analyze the publication, logos is used in the form of laws imposed by the European Union, Factual data and statistics, quotations and historical analogies.

CONCLUSION

The analysis of this work focused on showing the persuasive techniques used by the leading British newspapers in order to expose and defend their political affiliation regarding Brexit and persuade readers. This is justified because the method defines three categories against which the analysis should be based (Logos, Pathos and Ethos).

The analysis has made visible the assumption that British newspapers influence the opinion of the public, and therefore have to take partial responsibility for the result of the referendum. Brexit also highlighted class divisions in the UK, as newspapers used different strategies, structures and ideas to persuade a particular group of people. Another conclusion that can be made through the analysis of this work is that the persuasion strategies chosen by the newspapers follow the same line of persuasion as the representatives of each political ideology. For example, The Daily Mirror and The Sun, delivered emotionally charged messages, using metaphors and imagery. The Guardian, however, uses a combination of emotional language with clarity in reporting and expert opinion, avoiding assumption and generalization.

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APPENDIX:

''UK votes to leave EU after dramatic night divides nation'' Link: https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jun/24/britain-votes-for-brexit-eu-referendum-david-cameron. Accessed on 14 of August 2019.

"What happens next? MailOnline's guide to how the world will change after Britain votes for Brexit in historic EU referendum result" Link: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3657708/MailOnline-s-guide-world-change-Britain-votes-Brexit-historic-EU-referendum-result.html. Accessed on 14 of August 2019

"DAILY MAIL COMMENT: If you believe in Britain, vote Leave. Lies, greedy elites and a divided, dying Europe - why we could have a great future outside a broken EU" Link: https://www.dailymail.co.uk/debate/article-3653385/Lies-greedy-elites-divided-dying-Europe-Britain-great-future-outside-broken-EU.html. Accessed on 14 August 2019.

"David Cameron makes final plea for Britain to vote to remain in the EU" Link: https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2016/jun/22/david-cameron-makes-final-plea-for-britain-to-vote-to-remain-in-the-eu. Accessed on 14 August 2019.

"The UK should believe in itself and vote Leave in tomorrow's EU referendum says Boris as he kisses fish in final Brexit push" Link: https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/1322633/the-uk-should-believe-in-itself-and-vote-leave-in-tomorrows-eu-referendum-says-boris-as-he-kisses-fish-in-final-brexit-push/. Accessed on 14 August 2019.

"Britain votes to LEAVE the EU on a dramatic night as Nigel Farage declares 'victory for ordinary people'" Link: https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/1332742/britain-votes-to-back-brexit-and-leave-the-eu-on-historic-night-as-nigel-farage-declares-victory-for-ordinary-people/. Accessed on 14 August 2019.